Benevento's History Blog

A Trip to Old San Juan

August 13th, 2023

My family and I just spent a week in Isabela, Puerto Rico visiting family there. While most of the week was spent visiting beautiful local beaches and going on local adventures, we did make the 2 hour drive to Old San Juan. I personally had never been to San Juan like my wife had, so I was excited to visit for the first time. The two main sites that we visited there were two historic forts, the Castillo San Felipe del Morro, and the Castillo San Cristobal. Both forts are just a 10 minute walk from one another. Also, if you buy a $10 entry fee for one fort, you get free access to the other if you go by the next day. The kids were free.

Historical Background

Puerto Rico was the home to the Taino people for hundreds of years before European arrival. Christopher Columbus and his men landed in Puerto Rico in 1493 on Columbus’s second voyage. He had originally named the island, San Juan Bautista (St. John the Baptist). It wasn’t until 1508, that Spanish explorer and Conquistador, Juan Ponce de Leon named the island Puerto Rico, “rich port” after exploring the San Juan Bay. The Spanish then established a colony in the region and Ponce de Leon became the governor. Resentment over cruel treatments by Spanish colonizers led to a revolt by the Taino people. The Spanish brutally crushed the revolt and the Spanish built fortified houses.

By the 1530s, the Spanish had new threats from English, Dutch and French privateers seeking to capitalize on Spain’s new found riches. Early in the 1500s, Spain became extremely wealthy from silver and gold coming from their holdings in the New World, particularly in Central and South America.

At this time, Spain claimed the entire Caribbean basin. Besides gold and silver, large quantities of spices and exotic wood added to the wealth of Spain. As a protected harbor at the entrance of the Carribean, San Juan became an important part of Spain’s strategy to protect their American holdings from European competitors.

Castillo San Felipe del Morro

In order to protect the entrance of San Juan Bay from outside intruders, a fort was built in the northwest corner of Old San Juan, called Castillo San Felipe del Morro. This was the first fort that my family and I visited when we arrived at Old San Juan (Pictures below). The construction of the citadel and surrounding walls commenced in 1539 on the orders of King Charles V of Spain. At first, just a proto-fortress was erected while the rest was being built. It was not until 1587 that the fort’s final design was drawn, and arduous labor took years to develop the six level fort. “El Morro” as it came to be called, would go on to become the most feared fort in all of Spain’s colonial fortifications. On the opposite entrance of San Juan Bay, another smaller fort was built called El Canuelo to complement El Morro with defense of the bay.

In 1595, Englishman, Sir Francis Drake, and his navy, unsuccesfully attacked San Juan. He was not able to stand against El Morro and withdrew at the Battle of San Juan (1595).

Another English attack came in 1598, this time by land. The attack by the English was successful as this was the only time in El Morro’s history that a foreign invader was able to take control of the fort. However, just after a few months, the Enligsh troops suffered from an outbreak of dysentary and they were forced to withdraw.

The next time that the El Morro was attacked was in 1625 by the Dutch. El Morro was able to resist the siege and the Dutch were forced to withdraw. However, before leaving the city, the Dutch attackers sacked and burned San Juan.

These attacks convinced the Spaniards to expand their forticactions, and protect San Juan by land. Construction of the city walls surrounding San Juan began in 1634, and by 1650, the town was enclosed on the east, west and south, while natural battlements protected the city along the Atlantic to the north. Another fort, Castillo San Cristobal was also built to protect land invasions. (Castillo San Cristobal will be discussed below as this was the second fort that we visited.)

The sheer intimidation of El Morro kept invaders at bay and it was not until 1797 that the British attacked El Morro again. The British invaded Puerto Rico but were defeated at the Battle of San Juan (1797), again thanks to the impregnable defenses at El Morro.

During the Spanish-American War, El Morro was attacked by a naval bombardment by the United States Navy in 1898. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1898) and Spain was forced to cede ownership of Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam, and the Phillippines to the United States. A lighthouse was replaced and built by the U.S. Army from 1906- 1908 and serves as the highest point of El Morro, standing 180 feet above sea level.

El Morro served as an active U.S. military base during the World Wars. However, after serving its purpose for over 400 years, it was obvious after WW2, that the fort had become obsolete. After 1949, San Juan National Historic Site was established and El Morro became the first section of San Juan’s fortifications to be operated by the National Park Service in Puerto Rico.

El Morro was the first site that I saw in Old San Juan with my family. I was first stunned by the sheer size of the fort, as well as the long walkway to the front entrance. Green grass on both sides angle down to the ocean. It truly was remarkable to walk through the rooms of the fort and see the ingenuity of its construction. Since the fort is so massive, you will spend time going from room to room and level to level. The Park Service does a great job providing information about the role and purpose of each room and provides the history of the Spanish presence in the Caribbean, the strategic importance of San Juan, and the history of the fort. After we had explored the entire fort, my family ventured off to lunch.

My daughter really wanted to see the umbrellas that we thought hang from the streets in San Juan but after searching for them for a while, we discovered that the umbrellas were taken down and replaced with bells shown in the picture.

After the slight dissapointment with the lack of colorful umbrellas, my family and I ventured over to Castillo San Cristobal. (My children were troopers because by this point, they were very hot and sweaty but there was no whining or complaining).

Castillo San Cristobal

After the devastating attacks by the English and the Dutch, the Spanish expanded its fortifications in San Juan. Besides building city walls, they also built Castillo San Cristobal, considered the largest fort in the Americas, to protect from land attacks. Construction started in 1634. A fortification with three levels, and an extensive series of outer defenses, it took about 150 years to build. When it was finally completed in 1783, it covered 27 acres of land and partly encircled the city of San Juan. In 1897, part of the fort was demolished to ease traffic coming in and out of the city through the city gate. About 1/3 of the fort was destroyed.

San Cristobal was built with a dry moat (like El Morro) and a series of tunnels to protect soldiers from enemy attacks. My family and I had the opportunity to walk through the longest hidden tunnel that led from the main plaza to an outside section of the fort. My children were brave enough to walk through the dimly lit tunnel.

The main plaza of San Cristobal was the heart of the fort. Here, soldiers drilled, were inspected and assembled for formal events. Artillery ramps allowed access to the main firing battery on the dry moat. The fort was designed to catch and retain as much rainwater as possible and the cisterns below held up to 870,000 gallons of water. The cisterns are still functioning today.

Like El Morro, San Cristobal is yet another stunning place to visit because it reflects the power and ingenuity of the Spanish who built it. Such expansive forts remind you of the times they were built, a time when pirates roamed the Caribbean, and when protection was a necessity. The Spanish had built up a tremendous empire, but there were constant threats from their rivals, primarily the French, English, and Dutch. The fortifications built on San Juan were not just to show the might of the empire, but were for the practical purpose of repelling invaders who saw the strategic value of controlling San Juan, and the island of Puerto Rico. The Spanish swelled themselves with gold and silver from the Americas, and San Juan served as a gateway to refuel and restock goods to trade with the rest of the Carribbean and to Central and South America, as well as back to Europe. It’s truly remarkable that Spain was able to retain its hold on San Juan and Puerto Rico for the centuries that it did. This was thanks to their network of fortifications including El Morro and San Cristobal.

Besides visiting the forts I was also impressed by the old city streets in San Juan. The very narrow, cobblestone streets remind me of European cities that I’ve visited such as Barcelona, Spain or cities in Italy and France. And the bright colors of the buildings give San Juan a very unique and beautiful appeal. After San Cristobal, my family headed to the car and we made the 2 hour ride back to Isabela. I’d love to visit San Juan again soon and visit sites that we missed!

References:

https://www.nps.gov/saju/index.htm

https://vistas.ace.fordham.edu/themes/pre-columbian-images-03/

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Lincoln’s Generals in Six Words: William T. Sherman

August 10th, 2023

In my previous two blog posts, I highlighted Union Generals, George B. McClellan and Ulysses S. Grant. In this third and final post, I highlight Union General William T. Sherman as a Civil War general. I use six words to describe Sherman and provide an explanation for each. I also explain Sherman’s impact on the Civil War.

William Tecumseh Sherman

a. Aggressive– William Tecumseh Sherman knew that the only way to bring about the end of the Civil War, was to carry out a “total war”, bring the war to the citizens. This meant destroying cotton fields, livestock and infrastructure. He reasoned that the citizens kept the war going by producing weapons, growing food and transporting goods on which the armies relied. By bringing the war to the people, they would lose the will to fight. This was an aggressive stance by Sherman, but he believed that this would end hostilities.

b. Ruthless– Many believed that Sherman was ruthless, especially those in the South. His scorched-earth “March to the Sea” from Atlanta, Georgia to Savannah, and then up through the Carolinas, was seen by many as being too harsh on the South. He damaged many people’s homes and farms and left a wide path of destruction. He is quoted as saying, “We cannot change the hearts and minds of those people of the South, but we can make war so terrible… and make them so sick of war that generations would pass away before they would again appeal to it.”

c. Daring– By carrying out “Sherman’s March” he made a daring move. He would leave all supply lines, and his men would live off of the land. This was an extremely risky undertaking and could have gone horribly wrong. But as Sherman predicted, his march broke the back of the Confederacy. He showed that he was willing to take risks to complete his goals.

d. Unwavering– Sherman showed many times throughout the war that he was unwavering. He had a goal in mind and was steady in achieving it. In 1864, he had the objective of capturing Atlanta. Sherman had to settle in for a siege and made many attempts to seize railroad and supply lines leading to Atlanta. He stood the course and after a couple months, Atlanta finally fell in September 1864. Like his friend, Ulysses S. Grant, Sherman would not give up until victory was achieved.

f. Strategic– Sherman devised strategic plans to achieve his goals. As a commander, his plans ended in success. His strategy to take Atlanta as well as his “March to the Sea” ultimately achieved the goal of bringing the war closer to an end. When discussing his March to the Sea, many other commanders spoke against the plan. However, Sherman knew that his strategy would devastate the South and cause Southerners to turn against the war. History shows that Sherman was correct.

e. Charitable – Sherman’s military campaigns in the south and west freed tens of thousands of slaves who joined his march. Shortly before the end of the war, he promised the freed slaves who followed his army 40 acres of land per family and the use of army mules. Soon, about 40,000 freed persons settled on land in coastal Georgia and South Carolina. Later, however, the US government did not follow through on Sherman’s ideas of 40 acres and a mule.

William Tecumseh Sherman became one of Lincoln’s most trusted generals and he helped bring about the end of the Civil War. Sherman found success as a military commander in the west with Grant. He played an integral role in the Battles of Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga. When Grant was named the head of all Union armies, Sherman became the commander of the Western Theater. In the first half of 1864, Lincoln’s chance of winning re-election was questionable. The war was not going well, and his critics challenged his leadership. Northerners were losing faith in the war effort, and the Democrats’ platform called for a truce with the Confederacy. However, when Sherman captured the strategic transportation hub of Atlanta in September 1864, the tide turned. The North regained hope in the Union war effort and the people elected Lincoln as President to continue the war until victory was achieved. After Sherman’s March, he continued to head North in early 1865 to help Grant who was bogged down with Lee’s army in Virginia. The end was near, as the Confederacy surrendered in April 1865.

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Lincoln’s Generals in Six Words: Ulysses S. Grant

August 6th, 2023

In my previous post, I highlighted Union General, George B. McClellan. In my second of three blog posts, I will highlight Civil War General, Ulysses S. Grant. Below are six words that describe Grant as a general, and an explanation for each word. To close, I explain Grant’s impact on the Civil War.

Ulysses S. Grant

a. Courageous– Grant showed his tremendous courage throughout the war. At the Battle of Shiloh, his men got pushed back on the first day of the battle. Many other generals would have retreated. Grant would not. He prepared an attack for the next morning and was able to drive the Confederates away from the field. Grant continuously made courageous decisions. He was never willing to give up or retreat. He only wanted to press on.

b. Determined– Grant was always determined to complete his mission to the bitter end. At the Siege of Vicksburg, Grant attempted two frontal assaults. When those failed, Grant settled in for a long siege. Although he’d prefer a quick victory, he was always willing to try a Plan B in order to accomplish the goal. He stayed determined and had to be patient many times in the war. Grant became the most successful Union general because he was always willing to push forward. Eventually Vicksburg fell to the Union.

c. Tactician– Grant was a great military tactician. He was able to read the enemy’s positions, and call up an effective strategy. Whether that meant attacking the enemy head on, outflanking the enemy, or settling in for a siege, Grant had a knack for knowing what strategy would work best for the given circumstances. He used his reinforcements and reserve troops wisely.

d. Tough– When times became difficult for his Union army, Grant was always tough enough to keep fighting. Unfortunately for the Union, many generals did not have the same characteristics as Grant. During the Overland Campaign, Grant lost many men fighting against Lee’s army. However, Grant knew that the only way to win the war, was to completely destroy Lee’s army. While some in the newspapers and the public were calling Grant a “butcher,” Grant knew he had to be tough enough to keep fighting and win a war of attrition.

e. Calm– The only way to make tough decisions in the heat of the battle was to have the calm demeanor of Grant. He never wavered. He made clear-headed decisions in some of the most trying times. Grant was able to keep his composure and remained calm when he gave orders to his men.

f. Decisive– In the moment by moment developments of the battle, Grant was always clear and decisive with no hesitation. He made a decision and carried out the plan that best suited his circumstances. Some previous Union commanders were quite the opposite, were very indecisive about what their next move should be, or whether or not they should attack or use troops held in reserve. Grant, on the other hand, did not waste time considering his next move. He was quick to act and was always pressing the enemy.

In Grant, Lincoln found the right man to lead the Union army. Grant ultimately saved the Civil War. In the first half of the war, the only successes that the Union was having was in the Western Theater of the war, thanks to Grant. While the war effort was going poorly in the East, Grant won the Battle of Fort Henry and the Battle of Fort Donelson in 1862 in Tennessee. He then won a strategic, although deadly, Battle of Shiloh. Once Lincoln went through many generals in the East, he eventually knew that Grant was the only General who could save the War. Lincoln made Grant the head of armed forces, and he took command of the Union army against Lee’s army. Grant was the only general, up to that point, who was aggressive enough to do so. Although he had to throw many men into battle at a high human cost, he knew that the only way to win the war was to outlast Lee, and ultimately destroy Lee’s army. In the later phases of the war, Lincoln and Grant became very cordial. They agreed on the same strategies and they forged a bond which helped the war effort. Finally, at Appomattox Court House, Grant gave favorable terms of surrender to Lee, just as Lincoln had hoped.

Next up: William T. Sherman.

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Lincoln’s Generals in Six Words: George B. McClellan

August 3rd, 2023

In my next three blog posts I will highlight a Civil War Union General who Abraham Lincoln put his trust in to lead the Union army. I will focus on George B. McClellan, Ulysses S. Grant, and William T. Sherman. For each general, I will use six words to describe them as a general. I will then elaborate on the word chosen. To close, I will explain the general’s impact on the Civil War.

George B. McClellan

a. Administrator– McClellan was known for being a good administrator and his soldiers admired him. At the start of the war, he played an important role in raising an organized and well-trained army, which would become known as the Army of the Potomac.

b. Cautious– McClellan always believed that the Confederate army was larger than it was. He often believed that he needed more men and frequently asked for reinforcements, and therefore, he was overly cautious. At the start of the war he complained that he needed 270,000 soldiers when he had 120,000. McClellan worried too much about what the enemy might do. At Antietam, his subordinates urged him to send in reserve troops, but McClellan would only do so if it was absolutely necessary. McClellan missed opportunities to give a decisive blow to the enemy.

c. Hesitant– McClellan often believed that he was not given the proper resources to conduct a campaign. He complained of not enough men and not enough supplies. Because of this hesitance, his first campaign, the Peninsula Campaign, did not begin until March 1862, nearly a year after hostilities had begun. The newspapers, as well as Lincoln became very impatient with McClellan. Lincoln is quoted as saying that he would like to “borrow McClellan’s army if the general himself was not going to use it.”

d. Selfish– McClellan spoke negatively about Lincoln and other politicians in the Congress and the Cabinet, and even looked down on the President as someone with no military experience. He thought they were ignorant to the real needs of battle, while he, on the front lines, did not have the resources to attack. While everyone was pushing for McClellan to attack the Confederate army, McClellan didn’t listen. He seemed to care more about his own personal success than the success of the army, and he feared losing. After his failure to attack Lee’s retreating army at Antietam, McClellan believed that his actions during the battle were a “masterpiece of art.”

e. Paranoid– McClellan often believed that Lincoln and other politicians who were frustrated with him were talking behind his back, and trying to get him removed from his command. In a letter, he even called Lincoln, “nothing more than a well-meaning baboon…” His paranoia on the battlefield left him at a mental disadvantage. McClellan’s fear of failure hindered his ability to succeed militarily.

f. Indecisive– During the Seven Days’ Battles (June- July 1862), Robert E. Lee took over Confederate command and was much more aggressive than the previous Confederate General, Joseph E. Johnston. Lee so unnerved McClellan that he retreated back down the peninsula to the sea. McClellan again showed his indecisiveness at the Battle of Antietam. Although this was a Union victory, McClellan never ordered an attack during Lee’s retreat even though he greatly outnumbered Lee’s army. This infuriated Lincoln, and McClellan was fired in November, 1862.

George B. McClellan was a hindrance to Lincoln and the Union war effort. At the start of the war, Lincoln chose “The Young Napoleon” because McClellan had proven himself at West Point and the Mexican-American War to be an outstanding field commander. However, McClellan’s cautiousness led Lincoln and McClellan to be constantly at odds with one another, and they grew to distrust each other. This only created more stress for the Commander-In-Chief and the Northern newspapers. There were even rumors that McClellan was working for the Confederacy. While McClellan was at the head of the army, the Union Army of the Potomac faced set-back after set-back. The war in the Eastern Theater was going so poorly that Northerners were losing faith in the Union War effort. After Antietam, Lincoln removed McClellan from command and he would not lead a Union army again. He continued to be a hindrance to Lincoln by running as a Democrat in the 1864 Presidential Election. Although Lincoln was the victor, McClellan may have sought to make peace with Confederacy had he been elected President.

Stay tuned for Part 2 on Ulysses S. Grant.

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The Wrong Place at the Wrong Time: Meet Wilmer McLean

July 30th, 2023

Wilmer McLean was a wholesale grocer who lived in Manassas, Virginia, and purchased his home and farm in 1854. When the Civil War started in 1861, an early goal of both armies was to capture the opposing capitals, Washington D.C. and Richmond, VA. Therefore, many battles took place in the vicinity of these cities. The first major battle that broke out on July 21st, 1861, was the Battle of Bull Run, known to the south as the Battle of Manassas. Unfortunately for Wilmer McLean, the battle took place on his farm, and his house served as the headquarters to Confederate Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard. During the battle, a canonball fell through the kitchen fireplace. After the battle, Beauregard wrote, “A comical effect of this artillery fight was the destruction of the dinner of myself and staff by a Federal shell that fell into the fire-place of my headquarters at the McLean House.” The Battle of Bull Run was a victory for the Confederacy when the Union army retreated from the battlefield.

McLean’s home in Manassas

During the war, McLean served as a sugar supplier to the Confederate army. However, he feared that the war in his area of Virginia would impact his business, and he didn’t think it was safe for his family to stay in Manassas. (Considering that there was a Second Battle of Bull Run the following year, he was right). He decided to take his family about 120 miles southwest to a location he believed was safer: Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia.

McLean’s home in Appomattox, VA

However, on April 9th, 1865, the war knocked on McLean’s door once again. The last major battle of the war between General Robert E. Lee’s Confederate army and General Ulysses S. Grant’s Union army took place in Appomattox Court House. Lee looked for a place to sign the terms of surrender with Grant, and McLean’s house was chosen. McLean had to reluctantly agree. Lee surrendered to Grant in McLean’s parlor. McLean is supposed to have said, “The war began in my backyard, and ended in my front parlor.” The image of Lee and Grant meeting in McLean’s parlor is one of the most iconic images of the Civil War. It marked the end of four years of brutal fighting between the North and South. After Lee signed the terms of surrender, troops began walking off with McLean’s furniture: tables, chairs, etc. as souveniers. They handed McLean money on the spot with no discussion of the furniture’s value. The table on which Grant drafted the document is now at the Smithsonian. This unlucky man had the Civil War come right into his home on two separate occasions, ironically the beginning and end of the war. He sold his home in Appomattox Court House in 1868 and moved back to Manassas. He later moved to Alexandria, VA. A full size recreation of McLean’s home in Appomattox is now part of the Appomattox Court House National Historical Park. (https://www.nps.gov/apco/index.htm)

Check out my earlier blog post questioning what would have happened in post-war America if the Confederacy had won the Civil War: WHAT IF….. The Confederacy had won the Civil War?

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Theodore Roosevelt: History Channel Documentary

July 26th, 2023

I just finished watching a great documentary minseries on the History Channel about Theodore Roosevelt. It was released in May 2022 and was the fourth documentary of its kind that has been released. I’ve seen Washington (2020), Grant (2020) and Lincoln (2022), and I enjoyed each of them. There is also a fifth documentary on Franklin Roosevelt that I plan to watch soon, which was just released this past May. Just like the previous three, the Teddy Roosevelt documentary was very well made. It is two episodes and each are 2.5 hours. Teddy Roosevelt is played by actor Rufus Jones, and I thought he did a very accurate portrayal of Teddy. The documentary cuts back and forth between well-known historians, discussing the life of Roosevelt, and then cuts to the events of his life as a drama. The documentary does a great job adding suspense to many of the key events of his life. You are often left with a cliffhanger right before a commerical break that makes you want to know what happens next. It does help that TR was such a fascinating and accomplished person.

There truly is no other person like Teddy Roosevelt. He was tough as nails and he accomplished so much throughout his life. As a child, he was sickly and he had frequent asthma attacks. His parents feared he would die young and often kept him inside. The fact that he went on to accomplish everything that he did is truly miraculous.

He attended Harvard and broke into politics at a young age. His father was a successful businessman and philanthropist, and so Teddy grew up with wealth and privilege. However, just as he was getting into politics, he had to deal with many tragic events in his life. Teddy lost his father when he was 19. At the age of 25, he lost his first wife just after childbirth and he also lost his mother on the same day. To deal with these tragedies, Teddy went out west in the Dakota Territory. He lived off the land in the Wild West for 2 years before heading back East. Teddy became a successful politician but always went against the grain and did what he thought was right. Many within his own Republican party believed he was too progressive. He re-married and had a large family. He served in the federal government in his 30s, working for the Civil Service Commission for six years.

Roosevelt later became the Commisioner of the NYC police department, and he cleaned up the corruption that was running rampant before his arrival. The Chief of Police was forced to resign and Teddy set up the first Police Academy. In 1898, President William McKinley appointed Roosevelt the job of assistant secretary of the Navy. Teddy wanted to build up the Navy and cement the United States’ position as a world power. He advocated for war against Spain at the start of the Spanish-American War, and personally led the Rough Riders in an assault on San Juan Hill in Cuba. Teddy had bullets wizzing past his head and was lucky to have survived.

After he served in the Spanish-American War, TR went on to become the governor of New York. Because of his push for reforms, many of the corrupt party bosses in the Republican Party did not support TR. Roosevelt always pushed for laws that would help the common man, and he was always trying to give every person an equal chance. Roosevelt governed with a sense of urgency and had to work hard to accomplish his goals.

When President McKinley ran in 1900 for re-election, Teddy Roosevelt was his running mate. McKinley won re-election but Teddy felt limited in his role as Vice-President. When McKinley was assassinated in 1901, TR became the youngest president in our nation’s history, at age 42.

It’s truly amazing what TR was able to accomplish in his time as President. He took on challenges that no prior President had taken on. He tried to crush monopolies and he took on the robber barons (J.P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, and others). He personally mediated between coal strikers and business owners, finally landing a deal after a long and painful strike. TR set up a commsion to investiage and regulate big business. He wanted to make sure these big businesses were playing by the rules. Teddy always used the media to his advantage. He got on their good side and knew how to twist a story or argument in his favor. He used the media to get the public on his side, and it worked.

TR wanted the United States to have an influence on a global scale. He oversaw the deal that allowed the United States to build the Panama Canal. He knew the canal would benefit the U.S. both militarily and economically, as it would cut down the time and costs needed to transport goods.

TR had such a successful first term, that he won the 1904 election in a landslide. He took on the Meatpacking Industry after it was revealed that the factories used for producing meat were absolutely disgusting and the meat used was putrid (first revealed in the novel, The Jungle). TR believed that it was his job to represent the public interest, and that was his motivation throughout his public career. TR is also known for his preservation of natural resources, and setting aside land for reserves. He saved 230 million acres of land which became public land/ national parks.

After his term, TR decided not to run in the 1908 election and chose William Howard Taft as his successor. Taft won the election, and TR believed that he would continue his agenda. However, Taft did not follow through on many of TR’s policies, and TR felt betrayed. There was a growing rift between the two men, who had previously been friends. TR decided to run in the 1912 election under the Progressive Party banner (also became known as the Bull Moose Party). However, Republicans split the votes between Taft and TR, handing the election to Democrat, Woodrow Wilson.

While TR was campaigning in October 1912, he was shot in the chest in an attempted assassination outside his hotel. His aides urged him to be rushed to the hospital, but since Teddy was not coughing up blood, he claimed he was fine. He was asked to be taken to his campaign speech, where he gave an 84 minute speech while bleeding from his chest. He started the speech by saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, I don’t know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose.”

The documentary goes into TR’s later life after his Presidency. After dealing with his loss in the 1912 election, he went on a wild trip in Brazil down an unexplored river, where he suffered from malaria and a serious leg wound. He recovered and made it back home, but in ill health. The documentary goes into his stance on WW1, and his sons who fought and were either wounded or killed in the war.

One of the reasons that I love history is because I believe that historical characters and events are just as, if not more entertaining than anything any fictional writer/ author could come up with. This documentary on TR is the perfect example of this. TR is a true American hero who accomplished so much and is such a fascinating character. He fought for the common man and wanted to give everyone a “Square Deal.” Even though he was born into wealth, he was extremely tough, wanted to defend his country, and was dedicated to helping the poor. He connected with the common man in a way that few if any presidents have and he was a celebrity in his day. He also campaigned and toured the country like no other previous president. Besides risking his life in the Spanish-American War, he also asked President Wilson for a commision to lead troops in WW1 but was turned down. He was in his late fifties by that time. TR had goals in mind that he wanted to accomplish, and he worked relentlessly to achieve them. He felt a moral obligation to do what was right, even when powerful forces were pushing against him. He was seen as very progressive for his time, espcially later in his career. He fought for land/pensions for returning soldiers, and wanted to give women the vote. Many of his ideas were accomplished later in history. He truly was a remarkable person and always needs to be ranked amongst the most successful and accomplished presidents. Make sure you watch this documentary. You either have to find it when the History Channel is playing it for free (Which I happened to do) or you can find it on different streaming services such as Amzon, Apple TV, History Vault, or Google Play.

I’ll end this post with a great quote from the man himself:

“It is not the critic who counts; not the man who points out how the strong man stumbles, or where the doer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood; who strives valiantly; who errs, who comes short again and again, because there is no effort without error and shortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knows great enthusiasms, the great devotions; who spends himself in a worthy cause; who at the best knows in the end the triumph of high achievement, and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who neither know victory nor defeat.”

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Historic Sites to See in Boston

July 23rd, 2023
As a follow up to my three-part blog on the Massachusetts Bay Colony, this blog will focus on historic sites to visit in Boston, which was settled in 1630 and became the major city of the region. In 2020, I took a History course on Colonial America, and for one of the projects, I had to research colonial sites to visit in Jamestown, VA, Charleston, SC, and Boston, MA. In researching Boston sites, I primarily used the Freedom Trail website (https://www.thefreedomtrail.org). Then in August 2022, my family and I were able to travel to Boston for the first time, and see most of the sites on the Freedom Trail, and those that I had researched two years prior. Boston is the most historic city in the country, and one of the oldest. When considering the lead up to the American Revolution, most of the major events took place in the city of Boston, including the many protests against British acts such as the Stamp Act (1765) , the Townshend Acts (1767) and the Tea Act (1773). Boston witnessed the Boston Massacre (1770) and the Boston Tea Party (1773). It was the epicenter of agitations between the colonists and the British crown between 1765- 1775 leading to Lexington and Concord. Boston was always a city that I felt that I needed to visit and it was wonderful to finally get there last summer. The structures and landmarks that still stand are reminders of those events that led up to the conflict, and the people who fought for freedom.

I highly suggest visiting Boston and going on the Freedom Trail with a tour guide. I particularly recommend you take your tour with Jeremiah Poope. He was extremely knowledgable and entertaining. In all of his anecdotes, he added engaging and sometimes comical tidbits. He truly made it a worthwhile experience for anyone with any level of interest and knowledge in history. We went on the “Walk Into History” Tour but there are other options as well. Below is a list of sites on the “Walk Into History” Tour. The tour ends at #11 Fanueil Hall, but Paul Revere’s House and the Old North Church are just a short walk away. Next to each site is a link to its page on the Freedom Trail website for more information about its history and significance. I’ve also included our personal photos from some of the sites.
1. The Boston Common- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/boston-common
2. Massachusetts State House- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/massachusetts-state-house
3. Park Street Church- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/park-street-church
4. Granary Burying Ground- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/granary-burying-ground
5. King’s Chapel & King’s Chapel Burying Ground- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/kings-chapel-kings-chapel-burying-ground

6. Boston Latin School Site/ Ben Franklin Statue- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/boston-latin-school-sitebenjamin-franklin-statue

7. Old Corner Bookstore- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/old-corner-bookstore

8. Old South Meeting House- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/old-south-meeting-house

9. Old State House- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/old-state-house

10. Boston Massacre Site- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/boston-massacre-site

11. Faneuil Hall- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/faneuil-hall

12. Paul Revere’s House- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/paul-revere-house

13. Old North Church- https://www.thefreedomtrail.org/trail-sites/old-north-church

Other sites to see that we didn’t have a chance to see this time included the USS Constitution and the Bunker Hill Monument. I’d also love to go to Fenway Park some day.

Besides the Freedom Trail, we also went to the Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum and I would highly recommend getting tickets. You first enter the “Meeting House” where live reenactors plan the Boston Tea Party and rally you and the other visitors as the colonists. You then have an opportunity to go on board and explore an 18th century ship and then throw British Tea into the harbor. You also watch, on a theater screen (Minutemen Theater) the events of Lexington and Concord. They also had a great gift shop and tea room. Overall, we had a wonderful Boston trip considering that this was our first time. For the kids, we also went to the Boston Aquarium and the Children’s Museum which we all really enjoyed. We’re looking forward to going back!

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The Massachusetts Bay Colony (Part 3): Conflicts with the Native Americans and the Colony’s Lasting Legacy

July 18th, 2023

In Parts 1 (Read Here) and 2 (Read Here) of my blog post about the Massachusetts Bay Colony, I addressed why the Puritans settled there, what the conditions were like, and what daily life was like in the colony. I also discussed the Salem Witch Trials and dissent within the colony. In the third and final part, I will discuss major conflicts that the colony had with the Native Americans, as well as the long-term impact of the colony.

In Massachusetts, as other American colonies, the English settlers changed the landscape of the colony with little regard for the Native American way of life. The English cleared forests for farms, and built fences, houses, barns and churches. They killed wild animals that preyed on their domesticated animals. (Taylor, p. 188) Most Puritans viewed the natives as heathens who needed to be converted. “The New English saw the Indians as their opposite- a pagan peoples who had surrendered to their worse instincts to live within the wild, instead of laboring hard to conquer and transcend nature.” (Taylor, p. 188) In the first years of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the new settlers relied on trade with the local Native American groups such as the Narraganset, Massachusetts, Wampanoag, Nipmuck and Patuxet. (Taylor, p. 189) However, the first major conflict between the colonists and the Natives broke out in 1636 with the Pequot War. Allied with the Narragansett and Mohegan peoples, the English demanded a heavy tribute from the Pequot tribe and surrender of suspects accused of killing a trader. (Taylor, p. 195) The English and their Native allies surrounded a Pequot village, setting it ablaze and killing many Pequot Natives either in the flames or in flight. The Pequots were nearly destroyed and the survivors were forced to assimilate with other local tribes.

In the 1640s, Puritan missionaries began the task of converting Native Americans to Christianity. The Natives were expected to give up their customs and religious beliefs, and become assimilated into English culture. Missionary John Eliot “warned the Indians that they were doomed if they remained in ‘so unfixed, confused, and ungoverned a life, uncivilized and unsubdued to labor and order.” (Taylor, p. 197) Natives who converted were called “Praying Indians” and they created new settlements called “praying towns.” Christianity and an alliance with English settlers appealed to some Natives of the smaller and weaker tribes. However, Praying Indians were in a difficult position, looked upon with a degree of suspicion from many English Puritans, as well as other Native Americans who held onto their traditional customs. Traditional Natives viewed the Praying Indians as traders.

A violent and bloody war called King Philip’s War broke out between the English of New England, and the Wampanoag Natives. Both sides fought alongside other Native allies. The name King Philip refers to the English nickname of Wampanoag chief, Metacom. The English were previously allies with Metacom’s father, Massasoit, but when Metacom became the head chief, he quietly prepared for a war that he believed was inevitable. (Taylor, p. 198) “In the spring of 1675 the Plymouth colonists provoked the confrontation by seizing, trying, and hanging three Wampanoag for murdering a praying town Indian who had served as a colonial informant.” (Taylor, p. 198) Violence exploded as brutal and bloody fighting took place for over a year. Food shortages, disease and a heavy casualty rate eventually weakened the Natives, and Metacom was killed in battle. Although an English victory, the colonists paid a heavy price. (McDougal, p. 54) The war is considered, per capita, the deadliest war in American history. “The figures are inexact, but out of a total New England population of 80,000, counting both Indians and English colonists, some 9,000 were killed—more than 10 percent.” (Lauterborn, historynet.com) The war ended widespread conflicts in New England, but the devastation had a lasting impact on both the English and Native populations. It would be years before Massachusetts and the other New England colonies could fully recover. (McDougal, p. 54)

Lasting Legacy

The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, along with their successes and failures, have left behind a lasting legacy on the modern-day United States. The Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 “terminated and discredited the short-lived revolutionary regime led by English Puritans during the 1640s and 1650s. After the Restoration, English Puritans dwindled in number, prominence, and ambition.” (Taylor, p. 185) The Great Awakening (religious revival) of the 1730s and 1740s further challenged Puritan beliefs and customs, as new Protestant sects emerged such as the Methodists and Presbyterians. While the Puritans dwindled in number, their impact on American history cannot go understated. In the early days of the Massachusetts colony, only male, Puritan Church members could vote. However, this constituted 40% of adult males, which was a large electorate compared to Europe of the 1640s. (McDougal, p. 51) Distribution of land and wealth was more even among the populace compared to the Chesapeake colonies which had wealthy planters obtaining a majority of the wealth. (Taylor, p. 171) The foundations of democratic ideals were being laid in Massachusetts with Town Meetings, in which colonists could discuss and debate current issues in their local government. (Davidson, p. 98) Massachusetts and the other New England colonies were the first colonies in which entire families came to settle and start new lives, which set the stage for further colonization and settlement. The emphasis on literacy and religion led to the earliest universities such as Harvard to educate aspiring ministers. With all of its accomplishments, there were also the dark and negative sides of intolerance for dissenters and the hysteria of the Salem Witch Trials. Democratic ideals have grown since 1630 and lessons have been learned from the shortcomings of Massachusetts. Modern Americans can never take for granted the impact that these early settlers had on the United States. The risk that they took to sail across the Atlantic Ocean for a new and better life laid the foundations for the character, heritage, and strong-will of the American spirit. They planted the seeds of democracy and freedom that Americans hold dear. The ideas that they developed for their representative governments, inspired America’s founding fathers who wrote these ideas into the Constitution.

Works Cited

Taylor, Alan/ Foner Eric (EDT). American Colonies The Settling of North

America. Penguin Group USA, 2002.

Mcdougal, Holt. Americans, Grades 9-12 New Jersey: Mcdougal Littell the

Americans. Holt Mcdougal, 2007.

Davidson, James West., et al. The American Nation. Prentice Hall, 2000.

Bremer, Francis, J., John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father,

Oxford University Press, 2005

Lauterborn, David. “Blood and Betrayal: King Philip’s War.” HistoryNet,

HistoryNet, 12 July 2015,

http://www.historynet.com/blood-and-betrayal-king-philips-war.htm.

Related Posts:
The Massachusetts Bay Colony (Part 2): The Salem Witch Trials and Dissent Within the Colony

July 16th, 2023

In Part 1 (Read Here) of my blog post on the Massachusetts Bay Colony, I addressed why the Puritans settled there, what the conditions were like, and what daily life was like for the settlers. In Part 2, I discuss the Salem Witch Trials and Dissent within the colony.

As a result of strict adherence to the Puritan religious practices, laws in Massachusetts were also strict. Many crimes carried the death penalty, including witchcraft. (Davidson, p. 99) Drunkenness, swearing, theft and idleness were against the law, and the courts would decide the punishment. (Davidson, p. 99) Throughout New England, some colonists could be accused of crimes on faulty evidence. “In 1642 the New Haven authorities suspected George Spencer of bestiality when a sow bore a piglet that carried his resemblance. He confessed and they hanged both Spencer and the unfortunate sow.” (Taylor, p. 181) The religious fanaticism of Massachusetts led to one of the most bizarre and well-known episodes in American history, the Salem Witch Trials.

In 1692, two girls, ages 9 and 11, and related to the village minister, began to act strange; convulsing, screaming and uttering strange sounds. They blamed their condition on the witchcraft practiced by a slave woman named Tituba. From there, the accusations spread. Most of those who were first accused were society’s outcasts and those who didn’t follow all of the Puritan norms. They could be poor beggars or single women considered too independent. When the girls accused others of witchcraft, the situation grew out of control, and those who were accused tried to save themselves by naming other “witches”. The accusations continued until the girls accused such prominent citizens as the governor’s wife. (McDougal, p. 82) The causes of these events have been debated by historians and have highlighted both the religious zeal, as well as the social and economic divisions in Salem. Many of the accusers were from Salem Village which had small farms. Many of the accused were from Salem Town, a port town where its merchants and traders were becoming wealthier. Therefore it appears that the accusations reflected the grudges held between members of differing social classes within Salem. During the trials, the court allowed Spectral Evidence. Witnesses could claim that the spirit of the accused witch visited and tormented them in their dreams. This was seen as legimiate evidence by the court and could be used to condemn the accused. The witch trials displayed the religious enthusiasm of a people who believed that both God and Satan were amongst them and that Satan would use individuals to terrorize others. As a result, nineteen people were hanged and another, Giles Corey, was crushed to death with stones. Four or five accused witches died in jail, and about 150 more were imprisoned. (McDougal, p. 82) Finally, after about a year of witch hunts, the trials finally came to end when people began to conclude that the trials and accusations had gotten out of control. While this was a horrifying and tragic event, Americans learned many lessons from what transpired in Salem, such as the right to a fair trial, innocent until proven guilty, the importance of the separation of church and state, and religious freedom. Witch hunts were not new in 1692. Witch trials had occured in Europe for centuries. They were exceptionally prevalaent during The Thirty Years War (1618- 1648), a war fought mostly in modern-day Germany between Protestants and Catholics.

I’ve always loved teaching about the Salem Witch Trials because I am always amazed by the hysteria that struck Salem. To me, the events of the Salem Witch Trials show the damage that can be done when people lose a sense of reality and are completely overcome with madness like the settlers of Salem. I’m intrigued by the different characters of the Salem Witch Trials story, as well as the different motivations that people had to accuse others of witchcraft. In 2022 my family and I were able to visit Salem. A couple of the sites that we saw there included the Salem Witch House (which is the only structure still standing with direct ties to the trials), the Salem Witch Trials Memorial, and the Old Town Hall, shown in the pictures below.

The Witch House

House seen in the movie “Hocus Pocus”

Salem Witch Trials Memorial

Salem Witch Trial Memorial

Old Town Hall

The Witch House

Disagreeing with the Puritans

Early in the history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, a few influential individuals felt that the Puritan-led government had too much power. Those who spoke out against the colony’s leaders or their religious practices could be arrested or banished from the colony. The Puritans were “dismayed by people who publicly promoted an alternative form of Protestantism.” (Taylor, p. 181) In 1636, Roger Williams was a Puritan preacher who held two controversial views: English settlers had no right to claim land unless they paid the Native Americans, and government officials had no right to punish settlers for their religious beliefs. (McDougal, p. 52) Williams’s belief in religious toleration angered the General Court, and he was to be arrested and returned to England. However, Williams fled Massachusetts and headed south to the Narragansett Bay, where he purchased land from the Natives and set up a new colony, called Providence, later the capital of the Rhode Island colony. There, Roger Williams guaranteed a separation of church and state, and religious freedom. (McDougal, p. 52)

Another dissenter was Anne Hutchinson who became a threat to the Puritan Church when she began having meetings at her house, expressing her own religious views and even criticizing Sunday sermons. According to Puritan belief, women did not have a right to explain God’s law, and she was put on trial. In 1638, she was banished from the colony and headed to Rhode Island. (McDougal, p. 52) Another Puritan minister, Thomas Hooker also believed that the government had too much power. He led about 100 settlers out of Massachusetts Bay and headed west. They built a town on the Connecticut River and called it Hartford. In the Connecticut Colony, all men who were property owners could vote, including those who were not members of the church. They limited the power of the Governor, and extended the idea of representative government. (Davidson, p. 96)

In Part 3 (Read Here), I will address conflicts that Massachusetts Bay settlers had with Native Americans, including a devastating war called King Philip’s War. I will also discuss the legacy of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Anne Hutchinson on Trial

Works Cited

Taylor, Alan/ Foner Eric (EDT). American Colonies The Settling of North

America. Penguin Group USA, 2002.

Mcdougal, Holt. Americans, Grades 9-12 New Jersey: Mcdougal Littell the

Americans. Holt Mcdougal, 2007.

Davidson, James West., et al. The American Nation. Prentice Hall, 2000.

Bremer, Francis, J., John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father,

Oxford University Press, 2005

Lauterborn, David. “Blood and Betrayal: King Philip’s War.” HistoryNet,

HistoryNet, 12 July 2015,

http://www.historynet.com/blood-and-betrayal-king-philips-war.htm.

Related Posts:
The Massachusetts Bay Colony (Part 1): Settlement and Life of the Puritans

July 13th, 2023

I am always intrigued to read and learn about the Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony. I find the Puritans to be one of the most fascinating groups of people to study. On one hand, they disagreed with the strict practices and intolerance of the Church of England (The Anglican Church). And so they came to America for “religious freedom” but were very strict and intolerant towards other branches of Christianity themselves. Their religious fanaticism is evident in the events of the Salem Witch Trials. On the positive side, the Puritans’ ideas of representative government helped lay the foundations of the institutions that we still hold dear. From the Massachusetts Bay Colony, settlers branched out to settle the rest of New England. Like the Jamestown settlement of 1607, the Plymouth and larger Massachusetts settlements are truly remarkable stories. The odds of these first colonies surviving did not look promising at the start and the early settlers had to overcome extreme hardships. The early colonists found a way to survive and create the first permanent English settlements in North America. In my three-part blog post I address the following questions relating to the Massachusetts Bay Colony: Why did they settle there, what were the conditions like, and how did the colony become sustainable? I take a look at a typical day in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. I also discuss the significant historical events of the Salem Witch Trials and King Philip’s War. Finally, I discuss the long-term legacy of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Why did they settle there?

The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded in 1630 by a group of Puritans from England. Its founding had its history in the religious disagreements of the English Reformation. English Puritans wanted to “purify” the Anglican Church from within, ridding the religious practices that resembled Catholicism. Separatists didn’t think this was possible, and instead, chose to create their own congregations. While facing persecution, the Separatists, or “Pilgrims” sought freedom in the New World, where they could practice their religion as they pleased. Ten years before the Massachusetts Bay Colony got underway, a previous colony called the Plymouth Colony was settled on the coast of Massachusetts in 1620 for the same reasons of religious freedom and new economic opportunities. En route to Plymouth, 41 settlers signed the Mayflower Compact, an agreement for the colonists to govern themselves, a beacon for early representative government. The early Pilgrims faced a difficult first winter and nearly half of the colonists died. (Davidson, p. 89) The survival of the Plymouth colonists laid the foundations for the later Massachusetts Bay Colony. As an early leader of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, John Winthrop, citing scripture, claimed that the new colony would be a “City upon a Hill.” (Bremer, p. 171) The strong religious convictions of the early Puritans impacted all aspects of colonial life in New England. Eventually, the Plymouth Colony was absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

John Winthrop

What were the initial conditions at first landing?

The colonists at the Massachusetts Bay Colony faced an unfavorable climate in New England. “A northern and hilly land of dense forests, sharp slopes, stony soils, and a short growing season, New England demanded hard labor to make a farm and offered little prospect of getting rich.” (Taylor, p. 159) Unlike the settlers of Virginia, who benefitted from long growing seasons and fertile soil, the Massachusetts Bay Colony had to deal with more challenging conditions, and they made the most of the resources available to them. While the Virginia colony was founded mostly by men searching for gold and wealth, the settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony consisted of entire families, looking to begin a new life in North America. In the first year of the colony’s settlement, seventeen ships arrived with about 1,000 English men, women and children, who were mostly Puritan. (McDougal, p. 50) The emigration of Puritans to Massachusetts starting in 1630 is referred to as the “Great Migration.” (Taylor, p. 165) The migration was greater in size and more thorough in planning than all previous expeditions to North America. The port town of Boston became the capital. (McDougal, p. 50) Throughout the 1630s and 1640s, the Puritans began to spread out from the coastal towns, and eventually founded new colonies such as Connecticut and Rhode Island. By 1660, 20,000 of the region’s 33,000 inhabitants resided in Massachusetts. (Taylor, p. 166)

How did the colony become sustainable?

Massachusetts was sustainable because of the Puritan work ethic as “the religious and the economic were interdependent in the lives of people who saw piety and property as mutually reinforcing.” (Taylor, p. 166) While New England demanded more labor and produced smaller profits, it also permitted longer and healthier lives in comparison to the Chesapeake colonies. This was caused by faster-flowing rivers and streams which reduced diseases such as malaria or dysentery. (Taylor, p. 170) By 1700, New England’s colonial population was the healthiest, most populous and the most democratic in terms of the distribution of property. Because of the shorter growing season and rocky soil, Massachusetts colonists could not grow the cash crops of the South. Instead, Massachusetts raised small crops such as wheat, rye, maize, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, squash, and other garden plants, but these crops were mostly for the family. (p. Taylor, p. 171) The Massachusetts colonists also raised livestock such as pigs, sheep, cattle, oxen, and horses. (p. Taylor, p. 171) They hunted wild turkey and dear and fished for shellfish, oysters, and lobsters. (Davidson, p. 99) The colonists hunted whales for products such as oil and ivory. (Davidson, p. 99) New England had extensive forests and the wood was used for shipbuilding. During the 1640s, Massachusetts and the rest of the New England region developed a complex and profitable network of commerce due to excess agricultural products, the fishing industry, and shipbuilding. (Taylor, p. 175) Massachusetts played a major role in these sectors of the English economy.

What Was a Typical Day for the Colonists?

The challenging environment of Massachusetts had an impact on the daily lives of the settlers. “It took a family to cope with the diverse and constant demands of building and maintaining a farm in New England.” (Taylor, p. 172) There were fixed roles for men and women. Men cleared trees, constructed the infrastructure necessary to run the farm, tended to the livestock, harvested the hay and cultivated the grain crops. (Taylor, p. 172) The women maintained the home and garden, cared for what was often a large family, made clothing and soap, and prepared and preserved food. (Taylor, p. 172) Similar to England, Massachusetts was a patriarchal society. Men were considered heads of the household and had more extensive rights in the colony. Women could not vote or hold public office. However, Puritanism viewed women as spiritual equals to men and after 1650, women outnumbered men as full church members. (Taylor, p. 174) “Women played a leading role in the oral circulation of news and opinion that determined the standing of men, as well as fellow women, in the community…” (Taylor, p. 174) Women could appear as plaintiffs, defendants, and witnesses in New England courts, and appear to have had more influence in their society in comparison to the Chesapeake colonies. (Taylor, p. 174) Family life was very important in the Puritan culture. The average family had 7 or 8 kids. (Davidson, p. 98) From a young age, children were expected to help with the family farm or trade. Children were also encouraged to read the Bible and follow the ways of the Puritan teachings.

Religion was at the center of life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. There was no separation of church and state in the early colonial period of Massachusetts. Influential Puritan religious leaders held important government posts in the General Court, in which male church members elected representatives to an assembly. (Davidson, p. 95) While the Puritans left England to practice their religion freely, they did not plan to extend religious freedom to other groups such as Anglicans, Quakers, or Catholics. “More than the colonists in any other region, the orthodox New English maintained that they had a divine mission to create a model society in America: a Bible Commonwealth dedicated to the proper worship of God and to the rules of a godly society.” (Taylor, p. 178) The Puritans believed that they had been a chosen people by God, and all circumstances, whether good or bad, were direct consequences of their level of piousness and holiness. They viewed outsiders with suspicion and sought to keep non-Puritans out of government. (Davidson, p. 95) With a strong emphasis on reading the Bible, the Massachusetts colonists established the first press in English America at Cambridge in 1640. (Taylor, p. 179) Book ownership was higher in New England than anywhere else in the world. The high literacy rates of New England would impact the pre-Revolutionary period when tracts like Thomas Paine’s Common Sense circulated the populace.

The Puritans’ religious fanaticism and devotion to the spirtual world led directly to the events of the Salem Witch Trials, and the lack of religious freedom led to dissent within the colony. These topics will be discussed in Part 2… (Read Here)

Works Cited

Taylor, Alan/ Foner Eric (EDT). American Colonies The Settling of North

America. Penguin Group USA, 2002.

Mcdougal, Holt. Americans, Grades 9-12 New Jersey: Mcdougal Littell the

Americans. Holt Mcdougal, 2007.

Davidson, James West., et al. The American Nation. Prentice Hall, 2000.

Bremer, Francis, J., John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father,

Oxford University Press, 2005

Lauterborn, David. “Blood and Betrayal: King Philip’s War.” HistoryNet,

HistoryNet, 12 July 2015, www.historynet.com/blood-and-betrayal-king-

philips-war.htm.

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